2021 Upland Gamebird Hunting Forecast
Upland gamebird populations are on the upswing in many regions of the country, but this will be a year to put in the extra homework and planning.
by Dave Smith
Upland gamebird hunters, as a lot, are steeped in tradition. I can personally attest that I’ve evolved over five decades of gamebird hunting to treasure days afield in the same county, on the same farm, hunting the same patch of cover. It’s as simple as this: I love to hunt pheasants on Rita’s place.
Familiar haunts, rhythms of the natural world, and rich memories are hard-wired into our makeup. We fully understand that bird populations fluctuate with habitat trends and weather patterns, yet we have an inherent tendency to follow our instincts and go where the hunting was good in recent memory. That tactic brings comfort, excitement, and anticipation from the planning phase in mid-summer to the glorious explosion of autumn wingbeats.
The problem with this mindset is that wildly erratic weather seems to be trending as the norm. Droughts, brutal winters, nonexistent winters, cold and wet springs, warm and wet springs – it’s all over the board these days. Tradition doesn’t always serve us well. The good news is that the weather patterns are creating wonderful conditions for upland gamebirds in some regions almost every year. So, the annual conundrum – homework or heart?
Whether your hunt-planner leanings are resistant to change like mine or open to new opportunities, it makes sense to gather and process information. Upland gamebirds are short-lived critters with high reproductive potential. When it’s good, it can be extraordinarily good. When conditions go south – habitat, weather, or both – it gets really tough, really quick.
In 2021, the epic drought that has settled in across the West and the ideal conditions in other regions make this a year to truly pay attention. Bobwhite quail are booming in the South Texas Sand Sheet; it could be one of the best years in a decade for ruffed grouse in Wisconsin; spring/summer nesting brood-rearing conditions were ideal for ruffs in Minnesota; and, notably, the pheasant hunting is shaping up to be terrific in South Dakota, northern Iowa, Nebraska, and possibly several other states.
The upland gamebird brood surveys conducted by the state fish and wildlife agencies in August will greatly firm up the fall outlook. We’ll follow up in early September with an online Upland Gamebird Forecast Update e-blast and an updated set of projections. Visit www.pointingdogjournal.com to sign up for the pass-along e-newsletter.
The upcoming season could offer some of the very best upland gamebird hunting in years in certain regions of the country. Those who put in the extra effort of doing their pre-season homework will likely experience some epic days afield over bird dogs.
Pheasants
Pheasant habitat trends are generally stable or improving (see sidebar); so this season’s pheasant picture is all about drought, warm weather, and what that means for pheasant recruitment – which isn’t the same across the range.
In the Upper Midwest and the northern and eastern portion of the Great Plains, the two main weather-related limitations for pheasants are precipitation and cold temperatures: Too much winter snow kills adult pheasants; wet and cold springs negatively impact nesting and brood survival. Either of that double-whammy can reduce populations modestly, but both happening in the same year can cause a downward spiral. However, light winters with only modest snowfall results in good carryover, and warm and dry springs are ideal for chick production. That scenario is flipped the farther south and west you go into arid pheasant country. Winter isn’t the problem, but the epic droughts that are becoming more common can be devastating to pheasants by reducing nesting cover and insect production that is key to brood survival.
The intrigue of 2021 is that the favorable conditions across much of the pheasant range came on the tails of a major pheasant rebound that was abundantly clear last season to hunters in South Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Minnesota. So, excellent production last summer, a mild winter, more adult birds on the landscape this spring, and then an ideal nesting season – whoa! Time to load up the bird dogs and make a trip to America’s heartland!
South Dakota remains, by an order of magnitude, the go-to state for pheasant hunters. The 2020 season was spectacular in that hunters harvested over 1.1 million pheasants, a whopping 33 percent increase from the 2019 tally of 829,496 birds. The state was blessed with ideal summer moisture in 2020 and last season’s production was off the charts. Better yet, last winter was relatively mild and the carryover was excellent coming into this spring. The only question at press time in late July was whether drought conditions that had gripped much of the state over the summer would curtail brood survival and negatively impact this year’s recruitment. On the habitat front, South Dakota currently has over 1.38 million acres in CRP, representing a 408,000-acre increase since 2016 and the highest amount since the glory days of 2008! All of this points to SoDak being a great pheasant destination state this season.
It’s a similar story in Iowa coming off a solid campaign in which hunters harvested 299,548 roosters, a six percent increase from 2019. The rainfall total of 5.3 inches during April-May represents the driest nesting season in 27 years, a boon for pheasants. Northwest and north-central Iowa had normal winter snowfall and excellent spring conditions, so should be excellent this fall. However, east-central, south-central, and southeast Iowa suffered from heavy winter snowfall that reduced hen survival. Overall, Iowa hunters should expect another solid year for pheasants in the Hawkeye State, according to renowned pheasant expert Todd Bogenschutz, Iowa DNR. “Our weather model is predicting pheasant populations will be unchanged to perhaps slightly higher for the fall 2021 hunting season. I expect there to be regional differences given the weather. Populations might be up quite a bit in the northwestern part of Iowa, but likely lower in the southeastern part of the state.”
In Minnesota, spring conditions were very good in that the state didn’t experience any heavy rains or flooding which can negatively impact pheasant production, said Tim Lyons, Minnesota DNR. The drought conditions that settled in this summer could result in earlier crop harvest, which would concentrate pheasants on wildlife management areas and CRP lands – good for hunters. Lyons expects stable pheasant numbers.
Nebraska is shaping up to be a great bet for 2021. The pheasant production in 2020 was excellent, and hunters enjoyed a great season in harvesting over 136,000 roosters, a whopping 37 percent increase over the prior season. Better yet, unlike several nearby states, weather conditions through June were favorable for production, said John Laux, Nebraska Game & Parks Commission. “Conditions were warm and dry statewide but timely rains have helped maintain relatively good habitat conditions in most parts of the state. The best regions this fall will be the Panhandle and southwestern Nebraska. These areas offer an abundance of suitable cover in the form of CRP, small grains, and unfarmed draws.”
In Kansas, last year’s drought spurred a 26 percent decline in harvest and a 31 percent decline in this spring’s pheasant crowing count surveys from the previous year’s estimates. However, weather conditions this spring were superb, said Jeff Prendergast, Kansas Department of Wildlife, Parks, and Tourism. “We had excellent spring rainfall across most of the state producing good nesting conditions. There was a seven to ten day stretch in early June of 100-degree temps. This can be hard on chicks but given the cover and insects we don’t expect any major losses.” Last year’s harvest was respectable at 295,000 pheasants and populations tend to rebound quickly in Kansas in years of good summer moisture so stay tuned – Kansas could be a sleeper. Colorado is in a similar trajectory, with low carryover due to last year’s drought but good moisture during the breeding season, said Ed Gorman, Colorado Parks & Wildlife.
It’s shaping up to be a tough pheasant year in North Dakota and Montana due to the epic drought. In North Dakota, pheasant numbers were essentially unchanged coming into the nesting season, said R.J. Gross, North Dakota Game & Fish, but he expects very little reproduction this year due to the hot and dry conditions. In northeastern Montana, pheasant populations rebounded last year with a 78 percent spike in harvest thanks to great summer rainfall, but this year’s drought will likely knock populations back again, said Ken Plourde, Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks. Populations were below average coming into the spring in north-central Montana according to Evan Rogers, Montana FWP.
Pheasant populations in Ohio and Illinois, already low due to long-tern habitat loss, didn’t catch any breaks this year as a hard winter followed by heavy rains and flooding this spring in key areas likely hindered production, according to the respective state fish and wildlife agencies.
Ruffed Grouse
The suggested hunch of last year’s forecast to chase ruffs in the Lake States played out exactly as predicted: In Wisconsin, hunters bagged an estimated 217,739 grouse, an incredible 34 percent increase from the 2019-20 tally of 162,325 birds. Last season’s harvest statistics from Michigan and Minnesota were not available at press time, but suffice to say it was a pretty good year in the North Woods! Likewise, it was a stellar year for grouse hunters in Maine and much better than past years in Pennsylvania. After many years of shrinking ruffed grouse populations across much of their range, last season brought much-needed good news and hope for the future. So, what’s in store for 2021?
Starting with the core in Wisconsin, the drumming surveys revealed a six percent decline, which was to be expected, according to Alaina Gerrits, Wisconsin DNR. Gerrits explains that COVID-related restrictions prevented the 2020 drumming surveys, so they will never know if the population peaked in 2020; it likely did, meaning the decline is probably an indication that that they are entering the down-phase of the typical 10-year population cycle. However, the weather was excellent this nesting season, said Gerrits. “Spring came early and, so far, nesting and brooding conditions have been favorable. There were a couple of localized heavy rain events in northern Wisconsin around peak hatching that have raised some concerns, but despite that I have received many field reports of people seeing ruffed grouse broods, which is great! I’m expecting a good hatch overall.”
In Minnesota, this spring’s drumming survey showed an average of 1.3 ruffed grouse per stop statewide, down from 1.6 in 2020. This is indicative of the declining phase of the ruffed grouse cycle, which peaked in 2017, according to Charlotte Roy, Minnesota DNR. However, Roy says the spring weather bodes well for a good hatch. “Spring and summer were very dry due to the drought and very hot with highs in the 80-90s, even in May. Typically, dry weather brings a good hatch of nests. I have heard good reports of broods from many areas, but reports vary locally, and some areas have reported few broods. We are in a severe drought in much of the forested regions of Minnesota. I am not sure how that will affect food availability for broods, but I have a spruce grouse study underway, and we are having good brood survival this year. I think this likely is the case for ruffed grouse in those regions too.”
Michigan is a bit of an unknown at press time due to the fact that Michigan DNR does not conduct drumming surveys and longtime grouse expert Al Stewart recently retired. However, Adam Bump, new Michigan DNR Furbearer and Upland Game Specialist, expects ruff production to be in line with expectations for being midway in the 10-year cycle. “Spring weather was decent across most of the state and habitat conditions are good. As usual, young aspen stands and dense forest/shrub areas near wetlands, streams, and rivers generally offer the best flush rates.”
Maine was a ruffed grouse destination last year and should be good again this year, according to Kelsey Sullivan, Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. “We are coming on the coattails of a 2020 hunting season in which grouse were abundant. In key areas of the state, folks had 30-plus flushes a day last October. Our spring drumming surveys showed average to slightly below average number of drummers on our routes. Conditions were excellent for the key part of the grouse nesting season. Like many other states, we had some areas that were very dry. Later summer rains were timed after prime brooding and chick development. I expect a moderate hunting season for grouse.”
In New York, Michael Schiavone, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation reported that results from the grouse drumming survey indicates that the drumming rate was similar between 2020 and 2021. Schiavone anticipates that hunters will encounter similar conditions to last year when they head afield this fall.
There’s finally good news in Pennsylvania after a string of years of woefully declining ruffed grouse populations. The 2020 flush rates were up 20 percent above 2019 levels and 30 percent above 2018, a function of a positive trend in the West Nile Virus disease that has plagued grouse in Pennsylvania, said Lisa Williams, Pennsylvania Game Commission. “It seems the last two very mild West Nile Virus years that followed two very severe years [2017 and 2018] have given our grouse a bit of a chance to rebound. We saw a nice bounce back while other states reporting from the Mid-Atlantic saw a continued decline. My take is that mild disease years plus focused habitat creation plus conservative season-setting equal the magical mix of factors contributing to this modest grouse rebound. Whatever we’re doing right, we’ll try to keep doing it!” Williams won’t know until mid-September whether this summer was another mild year for the virus but reminds hunters to keep in perspective that the recovery still only puts grouse numbers at 2017 levels.
Kentucky is poised for a decent season, said Zak Danks, Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources. The flush rate during the 2020-’21 grouse season was nearly three times higher than 2019-’20 and the highest in the past five years, and this spring’s weather was favorable. In West Virginia, it’s a mixed bag of news according to Linda Ordiway, West Virginia DNR. Ordiway reports that last season’s flush rate of 0.55 flushes per hour was the lowest on record since they started their survey in 1993, but this spring looked promising. “Warm spells alternating with passing cold fronts provided adequate insect levels conducive to brood success. Soft mast should be in good shape given the amount of moisture and only spotty late season frosts. Anecdotal and personal observations suggest the brood success to be a bit higher than previous couple of years.” In Ohio, hunters reported only 0.41 grouse flushes per hour last season, indicative of low populations related to long-term forest succession, said Mark Wiley, Ohio DNR.
Woodcock
The main upland gamebird survey casualty of the COVID pandemic in 2020 was the cancellation of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s annual American Woodcock Singing Ground Survey. Cooperators ran a handful of routes, but the small sample size was determined to be not representative, so results were not included in the American Woodcock Population Status, 2020 report. The 2021 population status report will be released later this year. As such, we only have the following anecdotal evidence of woodcock recruitment to present at this juncture.
Wisconsin experienced a warm and dry spring, which is ideal for nesting and brood rearing, said Taylor Finger, Wisconsin DNR, who expects good woodcock production this year. In Maine, Sullivan predicts an average year for woodcock hunters based on 2021 singing ground survey results and weather conditions. “Many routes were above average for males per survey stop. Dry conditions early in the season likely influenced the earthworm abundance and accessibility, and likely led to less favorable production. Those young that did survive are now experiencing moderate to wet conditions with an abundant food source.”
In Michigan, Bump reports that the DNR encountered an unusually low number of woodcock in their banding effort this summer, but he wasn’t sure what that might mean for fall prospects. Michigan was again the No. 1 state in the nation for woodcock harvest – at 60,000 timberdoodles – according to the most recent harvest estimates for the 2019 season, according to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
In New York, woodcock hunter success has been stable over the last decade, and Schiavone expects that hunters will experience good timberdoodle hunting at the peak of migration in late October. Finally, Ohio is a good bet for woodcock. In 2020, the woodcock flush rate peaked in in the last week of October at 3.1 flushes per hour. The average flush rate for the season was 2.1 flushes per hour.
Bobwhites
Bobwhite populations routinely boom-and-bust with weather patterns, particularly in the western part of their range. Wild fluctuations can occur within a period of a couple of years, as played out in the Rolling Plains of Texas between 2014 and 2016. In 2014, Texas Parks & Wildlife Department surveys revealed 7.5 bobwhites per 20-mile survey route. In 2016, those same surveys tallied an incredible 52.5 quail per route. The 2016-’17 quail season was remarkable, the stuff of legends. So, pay close attention to areas with good production last year that are looking promising this year.
Texas has long been one of the best bobwhite states but the last couple of years have been rough. Drought and extreme temperatures last summer led to record-low populations in several regions and harvest declined to just over 372,000 quail, according to John McLaughlin, Texas PWD. However, over 71 percent of the harvest came from South Texas thanks to a good washing of summer rains, and the Coastal Sand Plains (a.k.a. Sand Sheet) region was particularly productive. “Texas is having one of its wettest spring-summer seasons since 2016,” said McLaughlin. “Rangeland and quail habitat quality is impressive statewide except far West Texas, and temperatures remain surprisingly cool. Bobwhite calling was low through the early spring months, but steady rainfall from May to June has been a boon for reproductive activity. The rainfall produced a flush of forbs and warm season grasses. Areas east of I-35 in the coastal Sand Sheet are primed for an excellent quail year.” Dale Rollins, longtime Texas quail expert, says the Rolling Plains region had almost perfect weather, but the breeding capital was so low coming into the season that he expects only average quail numbers. However, Rollins rates South Texas as a 7 out of 10 this year.
Kansas is shaping up to be a bobwhite destination this winter. Hunters tallied 364,385 bobwhites last season. The 2021 spring whistle counts revealed stable numbers statewide, and weather patterns have been very favorable for quail this spring and summer. Prendergast was initially concerned about a cold snap in February, but Kansas DWP had a quail study underway that showed minimal losses from the storm and high over-winter survival. In Oklahoma, consistent May and June rains resulted in excellent conditions for quail across the state except the extreme northwest corner, according to Tell Judkins, Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation. Judkins expects this hunting season to be as good or better than last year.
The picture is less favorable in the next tier of quail states, mainly due to winter snow and ice that was hard on bobwhites. In Nebraska, Laux reports that prolonged snow cover and frigid weather likely resulted in substantial loss of quail over the winter. In Missouri, coming off a 33 percent quail increase from 2019 to 2020, a hard winter negatively impacted bobwhites and resulted in slightly lower numbers this spring, said Beth Emmerich, Missouri Department of Conservation. Following a great year for hunters last season in Indiana, winter mortality impacted the breeding population so the population will only be about average this year, said Matt Broadway, Indiana DNR. In Illinois, the prolonged ice likely caused lots of winter loss, but southern Illinois experienced drought conditions this spring and summer, which will be excellent for nest success and brood survival, said Wade Louis, Illinois DNR. In Iowa, the quail prospects are poor, said Bogenschutz. Last season’s harvest declined by 16 percent, and the hard winter likely caused significant mortality, further reducing quail populations.
In Florida, quail numbers should be good this fall due to above average over-winter survival and favorable weather for nesting and brood-rearing this spring, said Greg Hagan, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. Bobwhite populations are on the rise in Kentucky, said Cody Rhoden, Kentucky Department of Wildlife Resources. Hunters bagged 0.5 quail per hour last season, the third highest rate in a decade. Rhoden said hunters should expect as good of hunting as last year, possibly better. Breeding conditions were also favorable in North Carolina, said Chris Kreh, North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission. In Arkansas, nearly a foot of snow that lasted for several days last winter resulted in lower counts this spring, said Marcus Asher, Arkansas Game & Fish Commission. In Mississippi, last winter’s ice storm reduced populations, but weather patterns this summer have been ideal so the population should be stable, said Rick Hamrick, Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks.
Prairie Grouse and Huns
Prairie grouse and partridge hunters experienced a season for the ages in the northern Great Plains last year! Following two mild winters and reasonably good springs, everything clicked last year to produce sharp-tailed grouse and prairie chickens at staggering levels. Hunters harvested an estimated 67,021 prairie grouse in South Dakota last season, more than double that of 2019 and nearly triple the tally of 23,860 from the 2018 season. Likewise, in northeastern Montana, sharptail harvest spiked by 140 percent from the previous season, and harvest of Huns was up 159 percent. Sharptail hunting was very good in North Dakota last fall, and populations this spring were nearing the peak populations levels of 2015 and 2016. In a word: phenomenal!
So, will this remarkable hunting carry over into 2021? This much is clear: Sharptails, prairie chickens, and Huns came into this breeding season in great shape across the Dakotas and Montana. The question lies in this summer’s drought. The responses from the three states vary, but it looks like there’ll still be good numbers of prairie grouse and Huns on the landscape this fall.
In South Dakota, last year’s boom and only modest drought at press time resulted in a favorable outlook from Travis Runia, South Dakota GFP. “Prairie grouse typically benefit from non-drought conditions and mild winters. Habitat conditions were solid going into the nesting season with good residual grassland cover across much of the landscape. Most of the prairie grouse range experienced some level of drought during spring and early summer, which could impact production. However, some timely rains fell in early July which hopefully mitigated some of the drought impacts. Hunters may experience shorter grass and fewer birds compared to the stellar year of 2020, but South Dakota will remain a destination for high quality sharp-tailed grouse and greater prairie-chicken hunting.”
This spring’s sharptail lek surveys in North Dakota revealed a 12 percent statewide increase which is above the 10-year average, said Jesse Kolar, North Dakota Game & Fish. However, as Gross noted for pheasants, sharptail recruitment will likely be negatively impacted by the drought. In northeastern Montana, it’s shaping up to be an average year for sharptails, according to Ryan Williamson, Montana FWP. The good carryover will help, but portions of the Hi-Line are extremely dry and won’t produce sharptails anything like last year. However, Williamson astutely points out that modestly dry springs can be good for Huns and that he’s seen decent numbers of broods. The experts all cautioned that the impacts of drought on this year’s production will be much clearer by late summer. Stay tuned for our online forecast update in September.
In the West, extraordinary drought conditions will likely result in declining populations of Huns in Idaho, Nevada, and Utah, according to the respective state fish and wildlife agencies. The one possible exception was Huns associated with irrigated lands in northeastern Utah, said Heather Tally, Utah Division of Wildlife Resources.
Desert Quail and Chukars
The dark red of the U.S. Drought Monitor map conveys an ominous projection for desert quail and chukars in the West. Drought has covered essentially all of 11 states for months, spelling at least one-year doom for those of us who love to hunt quail and chukars in the stark desert landscapes and rimrock canyons.
The greatest tragedy is that Arizona was on the brink of a Gambel’s quail explosion after two wet winters. However, this winter was exceptionally dry, leading to an 80 percent decline in quail numbers on surveys this spring, said Larisa Harding, Arizona Game & Fish Department. “It was so dry last winter that the land didn’t really green up this spring to trigger breeding activities or produce insects. It warmed up quickly and then we had an excessive heat wave that lingered for two weeks in late May and early June. The heat wave appears to have taken a severe toll on young birds before they grew enough to effectively thermoregulate. We expect that quail reproduction for all three native species will be relatively low this year.”
Quail production New Mexico will likely be below average with little winter moisture followed by an extremely dry spring and summer, said Casey Cardinal, New Mexico Game & Fish Department. Mearns’ quail may get a bump from monsoon rains this summer; but the last few years have been tough on these birds, so populations will still likely be low.
In California, the trend is the same with extreme drought across most of the state since early spring, according to Katherine Miller, California Department of Fish and Wildlife. Mountain and California quail populations have been increasing since a bust in 2014, but Miller says the Department anticipates that upland gamebird populations will experience a below-average nesting season due to the drought. In Idaho, Jeff Knetter gives a bleak report for quail and chukar production. “We are experiencing unprecedented heat here in Idaho, and much of the state is gripped by drought. While last hunting season was good and many upland gamebirds entered the winter with relatively strong numbers, I am not optimistic about production in 2021.”
The vast majority of Nevada is also mired in drought, but some areas have received decent moisture – and those would be the areas to focus on for chukars this season, said Shawn Espinosa, Nevada Department of Wildlife. “Chukar hunters will likely have to travel to the central or north-central portion of the state to experience decent hunting. Early indications are that production is moderate in Pershing, Churchill, and Lander County. Conditions appear favorable in eastern Humboldt and some of northern Eureka and Elko County. Traditional chukar hunting haunts in northwestern Nevada such as the Pine Forest, Black Rock, Calico and Buffalo Hills are not expected to be as productive this season.” For quail, Espinosa recommends hunting near agricultural lands because riparian areas are beginning to dry quickly, negatively affecting currant, chokecherry, wild rose, and other fruit bearing shrubs.
Chukar hunters also face grim prospects in Oregon. Field accounts indicate suppressed chukar and California quail breeding due to serious drought conditions coupled with an active fire season and record-breaking temperatures, said Mikal Moore, Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. The chukar hatch was good last year in north-central Oregon, so there’ll be decent carryover in that region. The bright light is that mountain quail populations likely won’t be impacted by the drought.
In summary, chukar and quail hunters should carefully study local precipitation patterns before venturing out this fall. And for the adventurous types: Try something new and different – e.g., chasing mountain quail in western Oregon or northern California – until the drought breaks in the West!
The State of Pheasant Habitat
Pheasant habitat trends have largely stabilized over the last five years. Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) enrollment in what has historically been the Top 10 pheasant states – the Dakotas, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Illinois, Ohio, and Montana – stands at roughly 10.4 million acres today, only six percent less than the 11.1 million acres in 2016, according to the USDA Farm Services Agency. Granted, there have been winners and losers in this equation: CRP enrollment in South Dakota and Nebraska has spiked while losses have continued to pile up in North Dakota and Montana. Nevertheless, compared to the era of 2007-2015 when over 7.8 million acres of CRP vanished from the key pheasant states, the tide has turned in a good direction for pheasants.
CRP gets most of the fanfare, but pheasant habitat work has been accelerated in many states through renewed focus and strong funding for other conservation programs. State fish and wildlife agencies and organizations such as Pheasants Forever are investing heavily in improving habitat on private and public lands, providing enormous benefit to pheasant hunters. For example, the new South Dakota Game, Fish & Parks Habitat Stamp has already yielded habitat projects including high diversity grass seedings and woody habitat improvements. Likewise, Nebraska Game Fish and Parks’ Open Fields and Waters Program has grown by 138,545 acres since 2016 and now has an all-time high of over 372,000 acres enrolled and available for public hunting. Most of these acres consist of high-quality upland habitat.
